Fig. 3

Effects of glyphosate or tylosin exposure on the gut microbiota of honey bees in the fall 2018 and summer 2020 experiments. A–E Changes in the abundance of 16S rRNA gene transcripts for A Snodgrassella, B Gilliamella, C Bifidobacterium, D Lactobacillus Firm-4, and E Lactobacillus Firm-5 in the guts of honey bees exposed to 0.1 mM glyphosate, 1.0 mM glyphosate or 0.1 mM tylosin for 5 days, when compared to unexposed, control bees. Each group consists of 5 samples, each representative of 3 bee guts. Each experiment was analyzed individually, and significance of differences among groups was measured with Kruskal–Wallis tests followed by Dunn’s multiple-comparison tests. Groups with different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05